Careers in Psychology Essay

Career Options After Pursuing a Degree in Psychology Choosing a major or a degree field to go into after graduating from high school is one of the more difficult things that recently graduated young adults have to go through. Many different aspects of a future career field are evaluated to help the individual in choosing the best career path for them. These evaluations include required education, salary, future places of employment and most importantly, what an employee in this specific area of employment will be doing. Choosing to earn a degree in Psychology offers many different possibilities for future areas of employment that can fit almost any type of person. In addition to the diversity of the field, the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics predicted an increase in psychology job opportunities over the next decade due to increased demands for these services in education, law, hospitals, and private companies along with many more options (BLS, 2010). With so many different areas of society requiring these services pursuing a degree in psychology opens up many career paths outside the commonly stereotyped job description of psychologists. Even though many people assume that clinical psychology or other types of therapy are the only options with this degree, an individual in this study can go into fields such as neuropsychology, developmental psychology, and educational psychology. A neuropsychologist is one who has received a doctoral degree, typically a PhD, from an accredited American Psychological Association university along with completing the one year internship required for the degree, and a two year training period within a neuropsychology practice (Moberg,2006). The job description includes, studying the relations among brain structure and behavioral, cognitive, emotional, and sensory and perceptual functions along with the diagnosing and treatment of disorders related to the central nervous system. Most neuropsychologists organize and conduct academic  research relating to the aforementioned topics, along with assisting and witnessing testimony in court cases that involve judgment to the psychological conditions of the people involved. Outside of the court system, neuropsychologists usually work in laboratories, along side medical professionals at hospitals, or privately making starting salaries between $60,089 and $91,476 annually. After some years of experience an accredited neuropsychologist can make anywhere up to $300,000 a year, but the average yearly salary as of 2010 was approximately $127,460 (BLS, 2010). On top of earning a relatively large wage neuropsychologists report to having overall high job satisfaction, with less than twenty percent of them considering changing jobs or leaving the psychology field for a different one all together (Moberg, 2006). Being strongly interested in the functioning of the central nervous system and wanting to go into an area of research would make neuropsychology a top choice for anyone interested in pursuing a doctoral psychology degree. For a person who is more interested in a field dealing with people as a whole and not just the internal functioning of them, developmental psychology could be a possible career option. A developmental psychologist is someone who studies human growth and development that occurs throughout the entire lifespan. This includes biological development, but also focuses on cognitive, social, intellectual, personality, and emotional growth. Although the specific tasks of the psychologists vary based on the area they specialize in, most of them perform research and evaluations in the area of their study, such as studying a particular age range (Beilock, 2012). For example one could study how moral reasoning develops in children, or how people influence the personalities of others. Many developmental psychologists work in educational settings at colleges or universities where they conduct research as well as teach courses. Others could possibly be employed at teen rehabilitation centers, psychi atric clinics, government agencies, etc. The education required to become a developmental psychologist is a master or doctoral degree (PhD) with those holding the doctoral degree more in demand and having the greater range for employment options. The earned income of a developmental psychologist is also highly varied due to area of employment and subtopic of study. Those employed in offices of other  health practitioners earn around $68,400 annually while those employed at Individual and family services earn $57,440 a year (BLS, 2010). A career in developmental psychology allows for diversity among studies and the ability to change topics while still staying in your general field. Another non clinical or therapy related career in the area of psychology is education psychology. Going in this direction involves conducting research on how people learn, and/or designing methods and materials to enhance learning and intellectual, social, and emotional development. This area includes a number of other regions of psychology including developmental, cognitive, and behavioral. Based on the title of this career it is highly possible that an educational psychologist would be working in elementary and secondary schools, along with colleges and universities. Another possible place of employment is with government agencies specializing in education. As an educational psychologist a person could work on curriculum development, incorporationg technology into education, or the studying of gifted learners or those with learning disabilities (Doovis, 2013) The salary earned by educational psychologists was not absolutely defined, however it would have some variation pertaining t o where one was employed. A ccording the Bureau of Labor Statistics general psychologists could earn anywhere between $66,810 and $89,900 depending on who was employed where and experience of each individual (BLS, 2010). Educational psychology would be a good career for individuals interested in the betterment of educational system to produce more productive adults for society, as well as a good place for people who enjoy working with kids through young adults. Psychology degrees contain such a wide area of options for employment that almost anyone could find a job they enjoy with this major. Many of these areas also contain sub level areas for example, a person could possibly be a developmental psychologist working with elderly people on how they learn and obtain information and the connections their brain makes while doing this. Overall, whichever area of psychology one may choose to go into after receiving their psychology degree will provide many benefits to our society whether its improved schools, understanding of mental disorders, understanding of development, or even counseling. The career options are endless. References Beilock, C. L. (2012). Areas of Development in Developmental Psychology. Topics in Cognitive Science, 4, 731-739. Retrieved from http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost Dozois, D. J. A.1. (2013). Psychological Treatments: Putting Evidence Into Practice and Practice Into Evidence. Canadian Psychology, 54, 1-11. Retrieved from http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost Moberg, P.J (2006). The TCN/AACN 2005 â€Å"Salary Survey†: Professional Practices, Beliefs, and Incomes of U.S. Neuropsychologists. Clinical Neuropsychologist, 20, 325-364. Retrieved from Retrieved from http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2010). Occupational Outlook Handbook (2009-2010 ed.). Retrieved from http://www.bls.gov/oco/ocos056.htm

Personal Goals HCS/301

Personal Goals HCS/301 February 14, 2011 Abstract In this paper I will discuss my personal goals that I have reached and continue to strive for. With that being said, I have many accomplishments such as; volunteer work, maintaining my family, learning new nursing positions, overcoming my personal health issues, and committing myself to return for a higher education and further career development. Having been in the medical field for over twenty years, I have seen many advances in healthcare.With the changing medical profession I have come to the realization in order to understand the different aspects of nursing, it is crucial for me to continue to strive towards new goals in my nursing profession. My goals have made an impact on my nursing career and the various paths I have challenged, I have come to recognize the importance of understanding that with knowledge and wisdom I have grown in my experiences. Personal Goals Growing up as an only child, I realized at a young age that I ha d many opportunities to explore.When I was young I always put others first. I spent many hours with family members whom were nurses. I admired them for their dedication to the health and well being of others. Having been shown lots of love and commitment throughout my life is the reason why I decided to help others. When I was fifteen I began volunteering at my local community hospital. This hospital is where I remain working today. As a child, I chose to work towards a career in nursing. My first goal I chose was to be a volunteer at the hospital.This was the beginning of my commitments to the community. According to The Journal of Educational Psychology, there are Mastery goals and Performance goals. Mastery goals are motivated through individual desire while performance goals are concerned with appearing capable and competitive to others (Educational Psychology, 2006, p. 354). Performance goals apply to me because I have the influence and motivation of my family. Through many exp eriences I have found that personal goals are achievable. All you need is hard work and determination.This often requires an increased workload, which leads to increased stress. Keeping these thoughts in mind can help me achieve my short and long-term goals. Goals to me range from high priority to low priority. With my continuing desire for a higher education this is where I am today. I have chosen to attend The University of Phoenix for a Bachelor of Science degree in Nursing. Short-term goals for me begin with getting though my daily tasks. I have found that keeping a planner is a valuable tool; this helps me with my time management and prioritizes my short-term goals.As a Registered Nurse working full-time with a family of five, planning is always necessary to keep my life manageable. Getting though household duties, bills, school, homework and baseball practices can become overwhelming. The thought of having enough time to cook or even enjoy meals seems impossible. Unfortunately , I have been living with Systemic Lupus for the last six years, which has consisted of endless doctor appointments and lab work. This has been a tremendous journey for my family and I. My goals during this time have been to decrease stress and improve my health through exercise and meditation.Ultimately, I want to continue to maintain lower levels of stress and achieve an optimal health level to reach my goals. Twenty years ago I graduated from Golden West Community College with my Associate Degree in Nursing. This was quite a struggle and an overwhelming experience for me. My family was young and there were many countless tiring hours involved in order to achieve my goal of becoming a Registered Nurse. Becoming a registered nurse was a great milestone and an amazing accomplishment for me. Graduating from college was a step towards my personal devotion to my future patients.Upon completion of my Associate Degree in Nursing, I was hired as Registered Nurse in the Medical/Surgical un it. After several months as a practicing nurse, my manager encouraged me to take the opportunity to become a charge nurse. This was an ambition of mine from the beginning. I knew I had the abilities to take charge and lead a team. With the knowledge and strengths of my senior nurses, I began to develop my leadership skills. Listening and participating as a team member helped me learn from my fellow nurses as they shared their experiences with me.I was never too proud to listen or learn. I have continued to remain this way throughout my nursing career. This has been beneficial to me because I can lead and listen to a team. From the beginning I realized that the key elements were communication and teamwork. My goals increased from there, and I knew I had to take further classes in order to develop my skills. I became certified in Advanced Certified Life Support and Pediatric Advanced Life Support, and after three years of this experience my next goal was to advance into Pediatric nurs ing.I was offered a job on a Pediatric Oncology floor at Loma Linda University Medical Center, Children’s Hospital. I became chemo certified and began working with pediatric cancer patients. I challenged myself into working in critical care pediatric oncology. This was an extremely emotional experience in my nursing career. Having stayed on that unit for four and a half years, I was ambitious for a new goal. I ventured out for a new experience and applied for a recovery room nurse position at Placentia Linda Hospital. While working in the recovery room, I then trained to become an operating room nurse.My leadership and organizational skills became apparent; I was then promoted into a charge nurse position. I continued to want to learn more about leadership so I took a position as an assistant administrator at a new non-established surgery center. This goal was by far the most exciting for me. It showed me another component of nursing and leadership. As, Ivey Business Journal described, the purpose of learning a goal is to stimulate one’s imagination, to engage in discovery and to â€Å"Think outside of the box† (Ivey Business Journal, 2006, p. 1).Not only did I have to think about ideal patient care, I had to be a director of a team, deal with finances, and be in direct line of fire of the physicians who owned the facility. After three and a half years of growing and expanding my knowledge of administration, as well as being a patient care advocate, my appreciation for my profession has grown fonder and I am ready to pursue a higher level of management. Eventually, I would like to become a director of surgery services. This will allow me to become part of a planning team, decrease my stress level, and provide a better quality of life for my family and myself.In conclusion, I have come to realize that the profession I have chosen has given me a great sense of pride. I have accomplished many goals thus far in my nursing career, but looking f orward to achieving more. I started out as a volunteer, and eventually became a charge nurse where I continue to excel. Rogers (2007) stated, â€Å"Even if you’re on the right track, you’ll get run over if you just sit there† (p. 95). I have chosen to continue challenging myself in my career by developing new ways to lead, manage, and listen to my peers. The commitment to extend my education has brought new goals.These goals include: receiving my Bachelor of Science degree in Nursing and to continue developing new strategies to enhance my abilities as a team leader and further advance to a director position. References Mestas, M. , Urdan, T. (2006). The goals behind performance goals. The Journal of Educational Psychology,Vol. 98(2), 354-365. Latham, G. , Seijts, G. P. (2006). Learning goals or performing goals: Is it the journey or the destination? Ivey Business Journal, Vol. 70(5), 1-6. Bishop, J. , Carter, C. , Katz, J. R. , Lyman, S. (2006). Values, Goals,Ti me, and Stress. The Keys to Nursing Success, 95.

Planned Parenthood Federation of America

Planned Parenthood Federation of America (PPFA) delivers vital health care services, sex education, and sexual health information to millions of women, men, and young people. As stated in their website, they â€Å"deliver comprehensive and medically accurate information that empowers women, men, teens, and families to make informed choices and lead healthy lives. Planned Parenthood is proud of its vital role in providing young people with honest sexuality and relationship information in classrooms and online†.If we are to evaluate their services and advocacy based on the criteria of evaluating the merit of benefit types, we can say that their services cater to the idea of consumer sovereignty. This benefit type is basically focused on providing choices to the consumer or target market of Planned Parenthood’s services. The organization basically advocates a Pro-Choice approach when it comes to birth control methods which runs counter to many principles advocated by relig ious groups.Planned Parenthood’s approach basically counters the idea of coercion and intrusion into the privacy lives of individuals, basically in making choices about birth control methods, sex education, and women’s health. However, this kind of liberalistic thinking is unacceptable in some cultures. Thus, although the organization promotes the improvement of the sexual health and well-being of individuals and families globally, their actions run counter to conservative cultures and organizations (especially the churches).Although it has local partners in Africa, Asia, Latin America, and the Caribbean their advocacy for promoting women’s choice when it comes to birth control makes them a bitter opponent against the establishment. Their vocal and outspoken global partners are considered to be intruding already into the privacy of families and society in general. That somehow dilutes the benefits that are provided by the organization to the public, by shifting the focus of the public from the benefits of their advocacy to the harmful effects of their group’s activist actions.

Media Communication of Scientific and Environmental Information Essay

Media Communication of Scientific and Environmental Information - Essay Example This does not auger well with society needs, as there is nothing like general audience. News reporting should enable decision makers to do their job effectively and at the same time, it should make sense to experts in the field. Thesis Statement. The objective of this review paper is to discuss how unethical partial or wrong reporting of scientific information is. In this context, I will illustrate how partial reporting of scientific views ends up harming the exact masses the media aims to protect. EFFECTS OF SCIENCE AND MEDIA IN DAILY LIFE Economic Ramifications. Scientific claims are usually beneficial to the society in curbing or at least reducing the adverse effect of natural or artificial phenomena to the environment and human life. For instance, the US government had spent millions of dollars to remove asbestos roofing to avoid its effects on human health. In this case, the general population received suppressed information and scientific views that had opposed it ignored. Late r, scientists figured out that the process of removing asbestos produced toxic gases that were more harmful than letting them be (â€Å"New View† 1993; cited in Roll-Hansen 104). The media played a key role in suppressing the information from one side since it had biased opinions towards supporting the government project. This is grossly unethical and goes against the requirement that the media be impartial in their reporting. More research needed to take placed if they had reported the findings of those scientists thereby conserving resources. Finally, there is the need for a good relationship between the media and scientists to ensure that reporting of findings is as accurate and timely as possible. Norwegian Tree Deaths. In Norway, tree death was intense at the beginning of 1980s. This situation was not unique to Norway since it also existed in Germany among other countries and it affected many tree species. Reports focussed on fir and spruce since their deaths were more d ramatic with needle loss and thinning of tree crown before death (Roll-Hansen 105). Though there were many causes of tree death, the most reported cause was acid rain probably because the rest of the causes were boring scientific explanations that would not adequately serve the media’s main profiteering agenda. For the media to make it in the highly competitive environment, the headlines have to be sensational and eye catching. Scientists maintained that the situation was not as damaging as portrayed by the media and the government. They advanced that there should not be a comparison with Germany since the two countries had different dynamics in respect to pollutants and ways of handling it (Roll-Hansen 104). During this time, the Norwegian institute of forest reserve (NISK) organized a conference on the matter. The media was quite disappointed that there was nothing to report showing that the media only had interest in reporting one side of the story and not the other. This was another way of saying that scientific conferences are not sensational or newsworthy enough to generate enough sales in the highly competitive environment. The media criticized the NISK for denying the role of acid in tree death and at the same time ignoring the other causes of tree death proposed by the NISK (Roll-Hansen 106). Though the media criticized scientists for their attitude on the acid rain and forest death, they agreed with scientific reports that acid rain was the

MicroL20 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

MicroL20 - Essay Example b. An example of a good with a positive externality is occupied housing. Certainly, the individuals housed benefit from shelter, security, and an ability to organize their lives and families in a way that would not likely be feasible if they were homeless. Owners enjoy rents (implicit if the property is owner-occupied) on the home. These are primarily private benefits. Occupied housing tends to be better maintained, improving neighborhood property values) over the long term and neighborhoods with higher occupancy rates tend to have lower crime rates. Both of these are primarily public benefits. An example of a good with a negative externality is a car with an extremely loud stereo system. While the audiophile-owner may enjoy the experience (a private benefit), those who are forced to experience the sound against their will are faced with a nuisance (a public cost). 2. Monopolies. a. If Bart charges $15, then he sells a meal for a total profit of $10. If he charges $8, he'll sell two meals for a total profit of $6. If he charges $7, he'll sell three meals at a total profit of $6. It's in Bart's best interest to charge $15.00 and sell a single meal. The producer surplus in this case is $10 and there is no consumer surplus. b. Without advanced knowledge of who would be willing to pay which price, it would be difficult for him to price discriminate, but there are some strategies he might pursue. One is to institute â€Å"haggling.† If every transaction is negotiated, it is possible that those willing to pay a higher price might be persuaded to part with more cash for the same meal than a less well-funded customer (though this increases transaction costs). It might also be possible for Bart to create categories of customers, through some sort of discounting mechanism, which would make it more likely that those willing to pay more would spend more. He might create three cosmetically different, though essentially similar, meals (though this pushes the boundarie s of the premise, since the meals would no longer be the same). Ideally, he would be able to sell three meals, one each for $15, $8 and $7. In reality, with imperfect information, he'd likely not do this well. c. Bart would be able to sell three meals, one each for $15, $8 and $7. The producer surplus will be $15 and there will be no consumer surplus. d. If all three meals were purchased by one person, it would be difficult for Brad to price discriminate, except, perhaps, by the use of discount cards or some similar device that needed to be presented upon ordering or paying. Assuming he could not price discriminate and the consumers presented a united, three meals or nothing front, we would expect three meals sold at $7 each. e. If there were another restaurant in town, it would be much more difficult for Bart to price discriminate. He would need to depend on factors such as market friction, customer loyalty or location preference (i.e., Bart's restaurant is easier to get to) or col lusion with his competitor to maintain some degree of monopoly power if he wanted to continue to price discriminate. As the number of competitors increased the situation would increasingly resemble a perfect competition model and Bart would become a price taker. f. It would be very difficult to effectively price discriminate

Legal & Ethical Issues in Nursing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Legal & Ethical Issues in Nursing - Essay Example -The second principle implies that, under some circumstances, the physicians can rely on implied informed consent of the patient information in order to deliver their services as illustrated when the staff used information from Antonia. The patient disclosed that he wanted to kill himself, and they, therefore, used the information to put him under soft psychiatric restraints pending the admission to the acute care psychiatric unit to prevent harm (Ginny, 2010). -The third principle is that paediatricians should bring out the best health outcomes, and should collaborate with other health care teams in creating safe environments for patients as well as prevent the medical errors. We get this from the Antonia’s wife suing the medical staff and the facility for ignoring the health condition of her husband (Ginny, 2010). Defendants Defendants refer to any person/object charged of committing a crime. The defendant must answer the plaintiff in the civil lawsuit before the court, or before the party accused or charged of violating the criminal statute. In the case presented, defendants comprise the staff members and the facility. Staff members could be potentially held liable for failing to provide the direct patient observation. The staff should take charge of one-to-one observation of the patient as outlined in the paediatric principles. Failure to take care of the patient results to harmful consequences, of which some may result to death as in the case of Garcia. This clearly indicates neglect of duties and responsibilities. The staffs were aware of the condition of the patient, and after administering restraints, they failed to keep a check. (Ginny, 2010). Court Ruling I think the court will judge against the staff and the facility. This is because there is evidence of complete ignorance of regulations and rules of paediatric principles. First, failure of observing the patient on one-to-one basis until he runs away is a serious offense that shows the neglect of duty. This is an unconstitutional violation of patient’s safety law. Usually, medical malpractice is a serious offense in law, and lawyers use it to refer to negligence resulting in injury or death by the healthcare provider upon failure to adhere to the accepted standards of practice for relevant procedure. Professional care providers refer to doctors, technicians, nursing home facilities and hospitals among other entities involved in the provision of medical care. Also, medical malpractice may occur through the outpatient with hospital negligence involved. The cases involving medical malpractice are handled by the law firm where the attorneys prove the l iability of the hospital in offering resources to insurance companies. The court is likely to penalize the medical staff. Also, the court can review their rulings and formulate Acts that will protect the patients against medical malpractice. For instance, giving the examples on such court rulings; in August 2007, a woman in California underwent mastectomy twice, after which she discovered that she never had breast cancer. A medical malpractice lawsuit ruled of payment of $198,000. The breasts of Ana Jimenez-Salgado were removed at Los Angeles hospital after external pathologists said that the biopsy results indicated that the cells were cancerous. She discovered that she never had cancer after she went for reconstructive surgery later. The lawsuit alleged on negligence of

International Intellectual Property Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

International Intellectual Property Law - Essay Example One is that emerging countries might not have the same technology as advanced countries, and need to copy advanced companies to innovate. This is an issue that is addressed below. However, the bulk of this article will deal with copyrights, especially with regards to British Law regarding the same. Intellectual property rights have become one of the buzzwords surrounding globalization. Globalization may be defined as â€Å"an extent of internationalisation at a level where boundaries are blurred or appear close, where networks and solidarities are communicating, [and] where interdependencies are increasing.†1 On a technological basis, modern globalization is dependent upon the structures for communication, transportation, computation and enforcement interlocking.2 Globalization has reached many sectors, including intellectual property, financial services, money capital, goods and financial instruments.3 There are obvious positive aspects of globalization, and negative ones as well, as globalization leads to clashes, prejudices, tension and cultural misunderstandings such as those seen on 9/11, and the Bali, Madrid and London bombings.4 Intellectual property is one of the core businesses in the World Trade Organisation (WTO), in which one of the WTOs founding element with regards to intellectual property is the Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) Agreement.5 The TRIPS Agreement, in a nutshell, establishes a global harmonisation of protection for Intellectual Property and enforcement, as well as created international standards regarding patent, copyright, trademark and design protections.6 The existing regimes of the United States, Europe and Japan with regards to intellectual property were largely the same, so their laws did not need as much harmonising. However, there were some areas that were a problem, as far as different countries having different rules, and they were â€Å"first to invent systems, scope of

A Force-Field of Sex Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

A Force-Field of Sex - Essay Example This has a great impact on Sanders perspective of looking at women. His roommate in college is also another significant influence on Sanders perception towards women. He is the person who enlightens Sanders to a totally different view on women, which he felt uncomfortable with (Jeff Greenberg, Thomas. A & Sander Leon Koole 4). Sanders is convinced that men, both of different classes and backgrounds determine how women are looked in the society. For instance, the construction men have mannish conversion as they work on their bulky tools all day long. This affect how men and women interact with the atmosphere changes when a woman passes by. During his adolescence, a roommate of his used to pin up the playmate every month from his subscription of the Playboy magazine. Sander s kept on wondering why how he was staring at the women in those posters, studying their curves, craves and perfection. He did not like the way he saw the women on the poster as objects and not as fellow human being s. His interaction with friends involved talking about the body parts of porn stars as men do even in modern days. They talked about these women in similar language to that of farmers assessing livestock. This is a degradation of women (Jeff Greenberg, Thomas. ... Â  Sanders’ efforts to see women for their worth and not as objects becomes a tough task due to media’s focus on women sexuality. This has a great impact on human interactions since men put effort to fit in society by looking at women in a similar way like most men do (Jeff Greenberg, Thomas. A & Sander Leon Koole 40). According to Sanders, the images that are, the pinups reduce the humanity of women since he saw the posters as objects, staring at them in order to view the curves and perfection in them. Since time in history, and the time of renaissance, women were portrayed nude in art. Curves were used are still in use today as a way of looking at women. The Playboy magazine is an example of nude magazines in which women are depicted in art in the nude. These magazines are still looked at by men as form of enjoyment thus, making them an art. Thus, contribute to reducing women humanity by looking at them like objects. Sanders’ friends talk of women in the pinup s in a language that is dehumanizing since it is similar to that used by farmers in assessing livestock. The dignity of women is reduced to simple objects of desire as Sanders finds himself staring at the pinups looking at women like objects. Humanity of women is reduced to a great deal by these images since it is the women who pose for f photographs and pinups that Sanders come across. It is questionable why women consider posing for nude photos in the first place. Hence, plays a role in reducing their humanity (Jeff Greenberg, Thomas. A & Sander Leon Koole 77).

What do we call them Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

What do we call them - Essay Example So, this paper will evaluate Andrew Bacevichs book, The New American Militarism focusing on his thesis that U.S. is becoming a kind of ‘military crusader’, who are militarily involving themselves in theatres of war, without utilizing the diplomatic and peace options. In the beginning of the book itself, Andrew Bacevich states that the Americans have become enthralled and captivated by its military power and so have formed notions of world domination. So, this book actually examines the origins and importantly the unwanted repercussions of these misguided notions. That is, American militarism originated as a form of reaction to the Vietnam War, with the antics of Saddam Hussein and importantly the September 11 bombing of Twin Towers, only adding ‘fuel to the fire’. He further asserts that the Government leaders and officials have overrated the effectiveness of military force in foreign affairs, and so avoided the role of diplomacy, to achieve its foreign policy aims. Importantly, the romanticized images of war happenings, which are being featured in Films (action movies), TV channels, etc, have also ‘tuned’ many people in accepting the effectiveness of military power. So, the basic point that is being put forward in the book is, American citizens including the conservatives and liberals should strongly oppose mixing militarism with utopian ideology, which could have dangerous repercussions for both the American people and also the people of other countries. This can be explained by the happenings in the Iraq War. Under the pretext of finding the non-existent nuclear weapons, USA launched a series of violent attacks on the country, killing thousand of innocent people. . â€Å"We will wreak havoc abroad. We will endanger our security at home. We will risk the forfeiture of all that we prize."(Bacevich). Even though, it toppled, the most autocratic government headed by Saddam Hussein, USA’s violent acts inside Iraq, caused loss of

The history and evolution of La Cosa Nostra Essay

The history and evolution of La Cosa Nostra - Essay Example La Cosa Nostra, over several years, founded its reputation for the cold-blooded use of violence. This aggression has taken place generally in the form of thrashings and assassinations. Personal aggression, and to a lesser extent it was brutality against property, such as, intimidations, fire-raising, blasts, is the distinctive pattern of the methodical use of aggression as an instrument of doing business. Violence and the threat of aggression were the ways by which the LCN gained monopoly control over a variety of illegal enterprises. It disheartened and abolished competitors, and it strengthened the reputation and trustworthiness of the LCN. Aggression is also used for in-house discipline. By the mid 1950s, Cosa Nostra thought of shifting their business to the cities from the rural areas. They understood that they could achieve financial gains only in cities. The industrial boom took place in the cities of Sicily. Here, the gains in terms of real estate, construction, and transporta tion were more hopeful. Thus, they turned out to be industrialists and became an element of the urban enterprise.

The Impact of ‘Scientific Ideal’ on the Development of Political Science Essay Example for Free

The Impact of ‘Scientific Ideal’ on the Development of Political Science Essay Introduction The philosophy of history is a study on how the human history is supposed to be laid down in papers. There are several studies that are interconnected with the process of knowing how and what should history contain about the human past. Along with this, an important focus on how wide the philosophies on historical set up directly affect the developments in the present systems of political science is also being observed. Political Science as defined mainly refers to the study of political behavior of people making up the government of certain specific countries. These behaviors also include the scientific examination of the acquisition and the application of power in different forms of government practiced by respectively different countries as well. According to authors Dickerson and Flanagan in their book â€Å"An Introduction to Government and Politics (2001), â€Å"Political Science is a process of conflict resolution in which support is mobilized and maintained for collective projects†. This naturally means that it is a way in which countries are able to formulate public projects de to the existence of authorities who have the power to give permission for such public projects. Other known writers and philosophers have different views towards the real meaning of the said study. As for Mao Zedong, Political Science is the study of politics wherein politics is defined as â€Å"war without bloodshed while war is politics with bloodshed† (As cited by Slann, 2004). Another writer, Otto Van Bismarck says that Political Science is the art of politics, which is referred to as the art of the possible (As cited by Slann, 2004). To him, the said study makes impossible things to occur within the existence of the human government. Indeed, as many writers have different and at times even contrasting views regarding the study of politics which is Political Science, debates and other social issues behind the controversies of political philosophies. Among the issues concerned within the topic is the fact that the Philosophies of History sets clear points showing the connection of the ‘scientific ideal† studies and observations to the developments of Political Science itself. With the use of several literature readings and observation, an issue regarding the emergence of power within the history of human civilization shall be discussed in this paper. Along with this, some points of concern regarding the relationship between the scientific processes mostly called the ‘scientific ideal’ in putting down the historical past of the human civilization and the development of Political Science up until the present time shall also be tackled herein. Philosophy of History The philosophy of history is referred to as the branch of the study of philosophy focused on the eventual significance of human history to the present development of several aspects of living within the human society. Thus, this study includes political science within its scope. In the process of knowing the specific details of human history and its connection to the present existing systems in the human society, several questions are considered in performing the said study. First is the determination of the specific and proper unit used for the study of the human past. It mainly asks â€Å"what possible unit should be mainly considered when history is presented to the readers of the present generation, the individual points, the cities or the sovereign territories, the development of civilization or culture, or everything else comprised within the details of the human past?† Another question is concerning the broad patterns used in posting the human past in historical write-ups and literatures. The main question is â€Å"are there any patterns of progress followed in the posting of history? The last point of concern of this study is the direction passed by historical accounts. The question on this matter of concern is â€Å"what is the driving force of the progress in history?† The questions mentioned above are mainly used to observe the different aspects of human society. Moreover, among the aspects to be considered as mentioned earlier is the connection of this process to the developments of Political Science. Consequently, many debates arise because of the fact that there are many theories concerning this matter. Some of the theories of power and politics shall be discussed in the paragraphs to follow. The Introduction of ‘Power’ in the Human Society With the records written in the pages of history, it has been made clear that ever since the human civilization started to thrive in the face of the earth, leadership and power had already been a part of the human’s everyday living. There had always been a need for people to have somebody stand up as their leader to instruct them of what they are supposed to do. Simple forms of governments have been formed in the earlier years of human existence to support the said need for leadership. On the other hand, many people too wanted to have the privilege of ruling their respective small communities. With this, there came to be the birth of simple politics. According to the analysis of Michel Foucault (1977) in the journal â€Å"Politico-Historical† discourse on â€Å"Race Struggle†, politics began to thrive due to the fact that people wanted to become a part of the authoritative power who rules other people. Because of this, Foucault claims that social conflict based on ethnic groups, class struggle as well as social elements contributing to power began in the earlier human generations. Then, as years passed, the simple political set up in the human communities began to change. Some tribes or even certain individuals wanting power, already wanted the position of an official in a certain society already came up with different propagandas to get what they want. Indeed, the politics as defined by Mao Zedong earlier as ‘war without bloodshed’ began to be given birth during these times of political progression in the human civilization. Another analysis on Philosophical History by Foucault (1976) entitled â€Å"Society Must be Defended† says that politics all began with the race struggle. People began to take territories as well as claim their people’s race when the beginning of politics had been introduced to the human society. This has been proven when the said analysis of human society and politics by Foucault had been used in Great Britain for study. It has been proven that people used to struggle against monarchy thus having the motives of gaining considerable social class from not much different from that of the monarchial rulers. Indeed, as clearly pointed out on the different literatures regarding philosophy of history and how the human past accounts had been laid down into writing, politics had been proven as a developing social factor which directly affects the whole society’s life and dealings with their own communities. Today, as history makes it clear, political science has been continuously developing through the years of human civilization. From the simple forms of government and creation of simple laws to the birth of a more organized human rulership and more complex creation of laws, the ‘scientific ideal’ had helped the people understand the developments of politics in the society as well as its study. Along the pages of human history, it could be tracked down how much politics as well as political science had been developing through the passing on of generations. The accounts on the years of imperialism and colonization have also been a factor, which contributed to the present political systems applied in many countries around the world. In this regard, the introduction of democratic government around the world had been very successful because of the fact that history shows the need for such kind of rulership basing from the past occurrences that happened due to the existence of other forms of government. Although not all the nations around the world applies the said form of government, many people still began to realize that this form of government gives so much benefit to people due to the effects of many analytical literatures written to support the said idea on freedom and democracy. Developments of Political Science As mentioned earlier, political science had been continuously developing through the years. Indeed, the fact that through the scientific formulas of historical presentation of different political accounts through the years of human civilization, politics and its study had been able to aim for better ways of governing people and helping the human civilization progress further for human advancement. In the face of history, it is clearly shown how the political aspect of the society had affected so much of human activities through the years of progress. Other social aspects such as religion and social classes as well as the different ideologies regarding life had been directly affected by the development of politics in the whole world. Along with this, the analysis of the said factor in human society also continuously developed helping in further progress of politics itself. As often said by writers who endeavor in the reports of both social and political progress, â€Å"the society is constantly developing and this is all because of the impact of history to the human civilization† (Rousseau, 2005). Conclusion True, as clearly pointed out in the entire theme of this paper, ‘scientific ideal’ in the placement of history of the human civilization on paper makes it possible for political science to develop in the way it analyzes the present political situations in the world. The creation of laws and other national rules are also directly affected by the said state of development in political science. Yes, indeed, the way history is carefully written for the benefit of the present generation is truly an important factor contributing to the progress of the study conducted by political science in the development of world politics and governance. Bibliography Martin Slann. (2004). Introduction to Politics: Governments and Nations in the Twenty- First Century. Atomic Dog Publishing. Pp 14,15. Jean-Jacques Rousseau. (2005). The Plan for Perpetual Peace, On the Government of Poland, and Other Writings on History and Politics (Collected Writings of Rousseau). Dartmouth College Press. P 122. Dickerson, M. and Flanagan, E. (2001). An Introdustion to Government and Politics. Atomic Dog Publishing. 12. Foucault, M. (1976). Philosophical History. The Society Must Be Defended. Verso Publishing Company. 14. Foucault, M. (1977). Politico-Historico. Race Struggle. Verso Publishing Company. 21. Louis Althusser. (2001). Politics and History: Montesquieu, Rousseau, Marx (Radical Thinkers). Verso Publishing Company. 23. Iain Hampsher-Monk. (1993). A History of Modern Political Thought: Major Political Thinkers from Hobbes to Marx. Blackwell Publishing, Incorporated. 121. John Milton, Martin Dzelzainis. (1991). Milton: Political Writings (Cambridge Texts in the History of Political Thought). Cambridge University Press. 145. Blackwell Publishing. (2003). History and Theory Studies in the Philosophy of History. http://www.blackwellpublishing.com/journal.asp?ref=0018-2656. (September 6, 2006). Blackwell Publishing. (2006). History On-Line. http://www.blackwellpublishing.com/journal.asp?ref=0018-2656. (September 6, 2006).

Article Review LAW 421 Essay Example for Free

Article Review LAW 421 Essay The article was a proposal that tried to justify the reason that congress should repeal the Sarbanes-Oxley Act (SOX Act) of 2002. The act is seen as a problem because individual felt that the act was only put in place so government official could feel better about addressing some issues of popular concern rather than resolving the issue. According to Niskanen the SOX act of 2002 is unnecessary, harmful, and inadequate (2006). Punishments under this act included jail time and loss of personal property. The act was viewed as unnecessary because the stock exchange has already addressed and implemented procedures to deal with most of the issues presented in the SOX act of 2002. Those implementations include accounting standards, prosecution for fraud, audits, and financial reporting procedures. Officials felt that both acts addressed the same issues therefore, congress should deem the SOX act of 2002 unnecessary. The SOX act of 2002 was viewed as harmful because it would â€Å"reduce the incentive of corporate executives and directors to seek legal advice† (Niskanen, 2006). It was also seen as harmful because it cause a ban on loans to corporate officer which would pose a problem for compensation. The act was viewed as inadequate because it â€Å"failed to identify and correct the major problems of accounting, auditing, taxation, and corporate  governance that have invited corporate malfeasance and increased the probability of bankruptcy† (Niskanen, 2006). Recommendation to make the act better included congress needed to state more clearly that criminal penalties under the SOX act of 2002 needed proof of personal involvement and criminal intent. Another recommendation was to reduce the cost it took to implement the act. LEGAL ISSUE The legal business issues raised in the article monopoly and unconstitutional. Monopoly because SOX act would have sole control over punishments. Unconstitutional because private businesses were not targeted therefore, public businesses felt that all businesses did not have the same right. MANAGERIAL PERSPECTIVE The legal issues of the SOX act of 2002 affect the way business operate. Businesses have to have certain measures of internal control with the act. The would also have to report financial accounts accurately and follow certain accounting procedure in their day to day business activities. The issued implemented in the SOX act of 2002 could have been avoided if business owners and executives would have exercised fairness and accuracy in the first place. Government would not have had to step in and make these implantations. Reference Niskanen, W. A. (2006). Congress Should Repeal the Sarbanes-Oxley Act. Retrieved from http://www.cato.org/pub_display.php?pub_id=6624

Effect of Business and Management on SACCOs

Effect of Business and Management on SACCOs The background gives a brief history of the savings and credit cooperative societies, highlights its importance to the society and touches on the problems that have influenced its performance of its roles and finally on the possible solutions or causes of actions. This preambles the statement of the problem, the purpose, significance, scope and limitations of the study together with the research questions. 1.2 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY One of the basic principles of Cooperative Savings and Credit Movement is the belief in co-operation and mutual self help for the uplifting of members standards of living. Kussco(2006). Members with a common bond join hands to form those quasi-banks institutions. With finances mobilized through such joint efforts the savings and credit society members build up the capital which they can use through local arrangements to finance their own social as well as economic development. The traditional form of cooperation involved working together on farms, hunting and gathering. All people have basic needs of food, shelter, security and belonging. People would invite neighbors to come and give a hand. Also people did not have money and resources, which enables individuals to employ people or machinery to do the work for them. In any community cooperation usually exists in the form of associations of people who come together as a group driven by their social and economic needs in order to cope with their problems and improve their conditions of living MOCD (2006) According to Odepo and Nyawinda (2004) , savings and credit cooperatives societies (commonly referred to as SACCOs), accept monthly payments for shares from which, members may borrow an amount equivalent to two or three times their own savings if they can get other members to guarantee them. They say that growth in SACCOs in the last twenty years has been spectacular. According to statistics from Kenya Union Of Savings and Credit Cooperative societies   (KUSCCO), the number of SACCOs rose from 630 in 1978 to 3,870 by the end of October 2002 while savings and share capital rose from Kshs. 375 million   in 1978 to Kshs. 80billion by 2003. Credit outreach similarly recorded significantly, having risen from 357 million in 1978 to kshs. 70 billion by 2003. Saccos active members numbered over 1.5 million by 2002 having risen from 378,500 members in 1978. Their rapid growth indicate that they have filled a need which had not been made by the financial institutions. Of the Kshs. 110 bill ion in the current share capital and deposits held by cooperatives, the statistics show that Kshs. 90 billion has been lent out to customers. However, the recent statistics from the ministry of cooperative development and marketing shows the position as below The internal management principles need to be enforced strongly to improve efficiency of collections, and even perhaps consider insuring the loans in case of demise of member loaned. The Sacco movement has the capacity to propel the economic lives of the citizens if indeed it is well managed. Its principles of democratic management, voluntary membership and common bond give it the base to take its members to new heights. The movement has been a boon for this country and many people would not be where they are now were it not for the harvests of the opportunities sowed in the garden of the movement. It mobilizes savings and finance and penetrates to areas not valued by other financial institutions, while serving special needs of members. The prospects for the industry are so huge. By identifying the fact that the easiest source of funding is the locally mobilized savings, the saccos should come up with innovative ideas to encourage the members of the common bond to save, as a first step. Other sources of funds like the cooperative bank, which all the saccos have a stake in, should be considered exhaustively. Besides they should think outside the box and get organi zations willing to empower members economically by allowing loans at a rate less than what saccos offer to its members. The saccos umbrella body- Kussco- has a fund to assist the member saccos when they are in need of the funds   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   ( www.kusco.com) Saccos face numerous challenges that hinder the exploitation of their full potential. Mudibo(2005) raised concerns on the calibre of leaders who run saccos noting that since these are voluntary organizations, members can elect anybody they like, who may not necessarily have the skills to run a sacco. He suggested that before a member is elected, he should have certain number of shares so that he has something to loose if he mismanages the sacco. Non remittance and delayed remittance of cooperative dues by employers has led to inconveniences and loss of income by the societies. New rules have however provided stiff penalties for errant employers. Members are also at risk due to HIV/AIDS and ways to attract new members are required. Ngumo (2005), in his article the cooperative movement in Kenya; the eagle that wont fly Nairobi, Kenya institute of management raises several unsettled issues affecting the saccos. First the government should decide on whether to control or facilitate the cooperatives. Cooperative roles should be re-emphasized. One member one vote should be questioned. Instead he suggests the policy of one share one vote. Still, ownership and control should be de-linked for good corporate governance. Then business strategies need further scrutiny before implementation. He concludes that it will be sad for Kenyans to compose a eulogy for the movement after all this time. He said; We cannot milk a cow, refuse to feed it, cry that it was wonderful cow and blame God for its demise. According to National Micro and Small Enterprise (MSE) Baseline Survey (1999/2000), Kenya has a relatively well developed banking and formal financial sector. This consists of the Central Bank, 43 commercial banks, 16 non-bank financial institutions, 2 mortgage finance companies, 4 building societies , 8 developed financial institutions about 3870 cooperative savings and credit societies, 38 insurance companies, the Nairobi stock exchange and venture capital companies. The survey further indicates that nearly 89.6% of MSEs had never received credit and other financial services. Table 1.2 Sources of credit   to MSEs in Kenya 2000 Source: National MSE Baseline survey 1999/2000 (CBS, K-rep and ICEG) The unserved credit needs portrayed by the statistics in the table 1.2 in the background section above signifies a wealth of opportunities untapped by all the financial institutions. The proof of the existence of market implies that a lot needs to be done to raise what it takes to serve a market. The most basic need is the finance to lend in a discipline way. Voluntary savings from members is therefore imperative. Saccos abilities to improve their members wealth is determined by a number of factors, among them is the funding levels due to members marginal propensity to save, contributions; remittance by the employers, legal and regulatory framework, internal management principles and practices (e.g customer service, marketing, dividend / interest payment etc) amongst other factors. These factors level of influence on saccos ability to perform captured the attention of the researcher. It was the intention of the researcher to examine them and possibly recommend on the best way to miti gate the underlying challenges and take advantage of the available opportunities by exploiting existing strengths. Voluntary deposits / savings as a source of commercial finance for micro credit institution have generated a lot of interest and debate in recent years. Locally mobilized voluntary savings is potentially the largest and the most immediately available source of finance for some micro credit institutions, most of all the saccos. Bearing this in mind, one is left to wonder what is hindering the saccos from prosperity, given the access to its resources and the wealth of its opportunities. The purpose of this research is to broaden the discussion of what, when, why and how a sacco should use its resources, get the right framework, apply effective policies for improvement of the wealth of its members. Getting these elements right is a crucial part of meeting the demand for the unmet credit needs. The researcher will also seek to bridge the gap that exist between Saccos that have exemplary performance in their services to members and excellent returns and some others which barely afford to offer loans, leave alone dividends. According to Armstrong, performance is often defined in output terms the achievement of quantified objectives. But performance is a matter not only of what people achieve but how they achieve it. High performance result from appropriate behaviour, especially discretionary behaviour, and the effective use of the required knowledge, skills and competencies. 1.3 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM Quite a number of Saccos e.g TENA sacco, have a long string of pending loan applications from members SACCO star ( 2006) . Some saccos pay out little or no dividends/ interests on members savings. Some others still have a low loan multiplier and / or limited concurrent loans compared to some well performing counterparts e.g Stima Sacco, Sacco star,(2006)- which has even started ATM services for FOSA customers and manages to advance more that three times the members deposits, can give up to four concurrent loans without closing any applications for the year and gives loans almost immediately it is applied for by the member , (mwaura (2004). Among the major problems hindering this is the unavailability of much needed cash to lend, when it is required. This therefore causes a mismatch in the availability of funds and the demand for loans. Other reasons could be poor investment decisions or lack of investment opportunities or delayed cash flow from employers/ members among others. Rutherford (1999) wrote that funding these large sums of money is the main management problem. The only reliable and sustainable way is to build them from savings. Saving- making a choice not to consume- is thus the fundamental and unavoidable first step in money management, without which financial services cannot operate. The poor themselves recognize the need to build savings into lump sums and contrary to the popular belief, the poor want to save and try to save, and all poor people except those who are entirely outside the cash economy can save something, no matter how small, When poor people do not save, it is for luck of opportunity rather for lack of understanding or of will. Most of the saccos have succeeded in mobilization of savings from members. Inspite of this, still they have a huge backlog in terms of loans advanced to members (Sacco star, 2005). Furthermore, most of the saccos pay little dividends/interests on deposits or none at all, in-spite of trading with the deposits/savings. It was therefore the intention of the researcher to seek to establish the determinants of saccos capabilities to improve its members well being. 1.4 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY Main Objective The main purpose of this study was to investigate and refine our understanding of the major factors that determine the performance of saccos to enable them maximize their members wealth. Specific objective Specifically, the study sought: To find out the extend to which the nature of business/ check off system affects performance of SACCOs To establish the relationship between management practices and performance of SACCOs To examine the level of education and training of general members, committee members staff and their effects on performance of SACCOs To determine if long term investment affects performance of SACCOs 1.5 RESEARCH QUESTIONS To what extent does the nature of business/ check off system affect performance of SACCOs? Do management practices affect performance of SACCOs? Is education and training of general members, committee members staff a factor that affects the performance of SACCOs? Does long term investment affect the performance of SACCOs? 1.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY This study is aimed at developing an understanding on major factors determining the accessibility to funds to process and dispense all loan requisitions in time by saccos in Kenya. It is seeking to examine and underscore the salient principles that have a bearing in the success in similar or related areas of focus, and hence suggest ways and means of overcoming failure. The study is aimed at benefiting, among others, the management teams. These are the people entrusted by the members to take care of their interests in saccos. They will study to understand and improve on policy setting and implementation for overall sustainability of the sector. The entire sacco membership will also get enlightened. The members of the common bond will appreciate their role in sustaining their welfare through sacco as a vehicle. They will be more willing to take a center role instead of quiting when they feel their interests are not being taken care of by the people they entrusted them with. It will also benefit the sacco staff/secretariate; these are the people who get their daily bread from the sacco. They will understand their role in the growth of the organization, hence acting to secure their source of livelihood. It will also be of good use to the government department in charge of cooperatives. The report will bring to light issues requiring framework and only them can attend to for the overall sustainability of the sacco industry. Finally other researchers in this area will find this useful. They will get recommendations for further research from this study. The beneficiaries will have access to the information on the findings from the compiled report. The final report will be available in selected major libraries, organized groups, especially the respondents will get a copy of the report on the findings. 1.7 SCOPE OF THE STUDY This studys scope was the saccos based in Eldoret. The researcher selected a suitable sample from the population by purposive convenience sampling. According to the statistics from MOCD/M, there are about 10 such saccos within Eldoret town. About 40 % of the population (4 saccos) were covered by the study. The study targeted the members of the central management committee (CMC) in the selected SACCOs. CHAPTER TWO 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Introduction to literature review This section contains literature that has been reviewed and continues to be reviewed relating to the problem. Literature review involves locating, reading and evaluating reports of previous studies, observations and opinions relating to the planned study. It therefore enables the researcher to know what has been done in the particular field of study, makes one aware of what has been made and what challenges remain, and gives suggestions on the variables and procedures that could be used. Literature review logically leads to objectives on the study. 2.2 Past studies in the area 2.2.1 Background information According to Mwaura (2005) sessional paper No. 4 of 1987 on renewed growth through the cooperative movement highlighted the significance of the movement in national development. By this time there were 3500 registered cooperatives with more than 2million members and an annual turnover greater than 6billion. The paper noted that one in every two Kenyans derived its livelihood from the cooperative either directly or indirectly. The cooperative movement in Kenya is reputed to be the most advanced in the African continent. The Kenya Nordic agreement of 1967led to the establishment of the Cooperative college of Kenya at Langata, which is the main training ground for both ministry staff and the movement employees. According to MOCD (2002) the first Savings and credit Cooperatives in Kenya were started in the sixties. The Government annual economic survey shows that as at December 2002 there were more than 2,400 active SACCOS with membership in excess of 1.5 million people. Share capital stood at Kshs. 65 billion while outstanding loans were Kshs. 59 billion.. The structure of the cooperative movement in Kenya comprises of four tiers. These include the primary societies, secondary cooperatives, tertiary cooperatives and nationwide cooperatives. The Kenya Federal of Cooperatives (KNFC) is the only apex society in the movement. It was formed with an objective of promoting, developing, guiding, assisting and upholding ideas of the cooperative principles. KNFC is the link between cooperatives in Kenya and the international cooperative alliance. Of special mention here is the African Confederation of Cooperative Savings and Credit Associations (ACCOSCA), which is registered under the Societies Act, Chapter 108 of the laws of Kenya. Its area of operation is Africa and the adjacent islands. Its head-quarters is in Nairobi. It has twenty five affiliated organizations. It is affiliated to the International Cooperative Alliance through its members in the world council of Credit Unions (WOCCU). According to the cooperative Societies Act (Cap 490), persons desirous of forming a cooperative society must fill the prescribed form from the commissioner for cooperatives. It requires that at least ten members will sign the form, though for savings and credit the commissioner has been asked for more people. The form requires that the society makes its by-laws. For ease of convenience the commissioner has prepared model by-laws for the cooperative societies. The societies are nevertheless free to change these or come up with their own by-laws. The by-laws must detail the following; the name of the society, objects of the society, purposes to which its funds may be applied, disposal of surplus funds, qualifications for membership and terms and conditions of admission of members. For savings and credit cooperatives, the following are also includes, the rate of interest, the maximum amount loan-able, extension, renewal and recovery of loans and the consequences of default in the repayment of any sums due. On receipt of the application form the office of the commissioner will register the cooperative society on the advice of the cooperative officer in charge of the area of operation. Chapter 490 provides that no companies registered under the companys Act or any un-incorporated body of persons shall become a member of a registered society except with the written permission of the commissioner. It also provides that no person can join more than one cooperative society with unlimited liability. A member may nevertheless be allowed to join two or more cooperatives with limited liability if the two are in different areas of operation. A cooperative society just like a company, may be registered with or without limited liability. The commissioner has power to refuse to register a cooperative society. Nevertheless, the refusal must be given to the applicants in writing. Applicants can appeal to the minister for cooperative developments and finally to the high court. The commissioner may register the cooperative either provisionally or fully. A provision registration is given where some requirements for registration have not been met. The applicants are given a period o f one year to satisfy all conditions. A provisionally registered cooperative society may act as a fully registered in all ways. Upon registration such a cooperative society is deemed to have been registered on the date of the provisional registration. Upon registration a society becomes a body of corporate. According to Ouma(1980), the term cooperative in its widest sense simply means working together. In this context cooperation is as old as mankind and exists wherever the human family is found. Indeed such cooperation exists among animals, insects, bees and ants. Thus cooperation generally means working together for a common purpose. Thus group effort through traditional form of cooperation may be traced in all communities of the world. However its narrow sense as a movement, it means an association of people whose purpose for group work yields good results not only for the members but to the community in general and even to the humanity at large. Cooperative is a business organization by profit, but rather the result of mutual association whose objective is equitable economic betterment of man and the society in which he lives. According to the MOCD, cooperatives are regulated by a set of principals. These principles were formulated by a group of people who lived in a village in England known as Rochdale, and they are therefore referred to as Rochdale pioneers. They formed the first successful cooperative society   in 1884. This society which was a consumer cooperative society was formed in 1844 when Britain was undergoing industrial revolution. As a result of the revolution, a lot of people lost their jobs in the factories as machines were introduced to replace them. In addition to this there was general lack of credit and supply of essential commodities like salt, sugar, flour and cooking fat. Businessmen also took advantage of this situation and started offering impure products at high prices. It is against this background that Rochdale Pioneers decided to draw up some sort of principles which would guide their operation as cooperative society.   These principles were intended for the regulation of cooperative society as indicated by the great stress on the sale of pure products and the sale of goods for cash only. It was therefore found necessary to formulate the principles for adoption by other types of cooperatives. The International Cooperative Alliance (ICA) Commission of 1966 adopted the following principles which are genuine for the running of a genuine cooperative society:- Open and voluntary membership, democratic administration (one man, one vote), limited interest on share capital, payments of dividends and bonuses to members, promotion of education and cooperation with other cooperatives at local national and international levels. According to Ouma (1980), the traditional cooperatives have been in existence in Kenya, as it has been elsewhere, from time immemorial. Examples of such cooperative practices are to be found in Kenya. The group association is normally based on lineage according to the natural geographic environment in which the members of the group are born. This is usually based on clan or people who live within the same village. It can be stated with fair amount of certainty that the   traditional forms of cooperation do generally speaking, form the basis for the establishment of modern cooperative organizations. There is for instance in Luo, Saga whereby a group of people do ploughing, weeding or harvest for each member of the group in turn. In Kwath, members of the group look after their cattle together for three or more days consecutively, in turn. In Kikuyu there is what is called ngwatio (Mwethya in Kamba) whereby members of the group get together to build houses for themselves, each member of the group breinging what is required for the construction e.g. grass and poles. When the first house is completed then the members start on the next one. In Kisii, there is what is called obituary wherby men go on a job hunting exercise, and when they kill an animal, they will either divide it or take it home (village) where it mis cooked and eaten communally by all the villagers. Among the Kalenjin there is the practice of Kokwet wherby a group of people   would go out to harvest or weed the garden of their members in turn. The Kalenjin also have Loget whereby the men   go in a joint   effort to kill animals for food. According to Ouma(1980), practically all the ethnic groups in this country, whether small or big, has since time immemorial practiced mutual association in order to satisfy their needs socially, economically or otherwise. It is also necessary to point out that in the traditional forms of cooperatives, in contrast to the modern cooperatives, members had a great sense of commitment and belonging.. They had mutual trust and   were voluntarily involved in their activities and affairs.. It is of course not possible and it may not be expected that with the development of cosmopolitan populations consisting of different ethnic groups and tribes that members can still hold   together without some form of regulations. Hence the necessity to resort to legal reinforcement and education in order to develop efficient cooperative organizations. Although these associations of group effort could be deemed self help which is infect a for of cooperative , it is nevertheless true to say that the modern cooperative movement, born in Kenya during the beginning of twentieth century owed much of the cooperative idea to these earlier practices. It is also true that the modern cooperative associations in this country took a different approach and   mainly because of expediency. Its founders the British settlers- merely wanted to use it as a cheap means of business for easy profit making. They never spontaneously involved the indigenous people who already were familiar with cooperative effort. The early settlers were beset by very many problems as regards their agricultural activities. For instance prices for Agricultural products were very low, transport of the agricultural inputs and outputs to the markets by each individual settler were classical nightmares. Therefore this new system of farming with its large scale production caused the needs for associations by the few European farmers who undoubtedly had conceived the cooperative idea from the British cooperative movement back home. It will of course be recalled that the formal and successful cooperative organisations started in Britain in 1844. In 1908, they resolved to join together at a place called Lumbwa and formed Lumbwa cooperative Society Ltd. Although not registered as such under any cooperative Societies Act, it is deemed to be one of the modern cooperatives in Kenya. The main objective was to purchase merchandise; i.e. fertilizers, chemical seeds, and other agricultural inputs through collective effort, and to market their produce collectively thus taking advantage of the economy of scale. It would appear quite clear at this point that cooperatives in Kenya did not start as a poor mans defensive weapon against the exploitation by the middlemen, as it had started in Europe and elsewhere. It was on the contrary an easier means to enable the white settlers to receive high returns from their agricultural produce. Thus it was rather an economic necessity for the well to do and not the ordinary man with little or no means at all. It will be remembered that during this time, there was no cooperative societies ordinance to regulate and to assist the management of these cooperative efforts in Kenya. It is also not clear whether or   not Lumbwa Cooperative society ltd was registered even under the companies Act, otherwise calling it a co-operative society was misleading. However one thing remains certain, and that is that the settlers wanted to maximize their profits by trading under the pretext of a co-operative organisation, thereby enjoying its privileges. According to Ouma (1980) many self help groups, most of which were very small and un-economic, were started all over the country. But these were not economically viable and consequently had to be amalgamated into larger economic units. These were for instance Kenya farmers association (co-operatives), Kenya planters co-operative union, Kenya cooperative creameries and Horticultural cooperative union. It is a fact that these institutions formed the backbone and the base for formal cooperative movement in this country. These initial cooperative ventures in Kenya were unfortunately not quite in the spirit of the Rochdale Pioneer Cooperative Society. They never for example, observed the principle of membership, for no African could participate in it until later. The need to form formal cooperative organisations arose when some African peasant farmers realized that they were being exploited, especially by the Asian traders who were paying very low prices for their agricultural produce. As early as in the 1930s there were attempts to form cooperatives by the indigenous people of Kenya, in spite of lack of proper guidance. Of these early attempts two examples can be mentioned here, The Taita vegetable company and the Kisii coffee Growers cooperative. The farmers had 239 members and bought 3 lorries at the cost of $1170 out of the profits made from the operations. The group was producing, grading, transporting and selling on the mombasa market over 900,000Lbs of vegetables a year and the growers received over $4,500 out of a gross selling price of $ 6300. This was indeed too substantial an enterprise to be left without a legal basis. It was later registered as cooperative society. The Kisii coffee growers Association which was able to raise from the sale of its coffee a sum of $2470 of which   $1240 was paid out to the 251 members who had cultivated only 159 acres, but had already accumulated a surplus of $1065. In 1994, the British Colonial Office in London appointed Mr. W.K.H Campbell to come to investigate the possibilities of African participation in the cooperative organisations. He carried out his investigations by touring and visiting many towns and districts in the republic of Kenya and talking to the people. After all his investigations Mr. Campbell submitted his recommendations that subject to availability of capable staff attempts to organise cooperatives were worth while. It was also during this time that the first African Mr. Eliud Mathu was nominated to the legislative assembly, as the Kenya parliament was called then. He demanded in parliament and such people as Ex chief Koinange from outside, that the Government should come out openly to encourage African participation in the cooperative movement. It was as a result of Campbells recommendation that the cooperative societies (Registration) Amendment, Ordinance of 1932 was repealed and the cooperative societies Ordinance of 1945 was enacted under Cap. 287. It was as a result of this new ordinance that the department of cooperatives was created, although it was placed under different ministries at various times. Consequent to the establishment of the department, a registrar ( now called commissioner for cooperative Development) was appointed and together with his staff was responsible for registration and promotion of cooperative societies in the country. The 1945 cooperative societies ordinance further gave the registrar certain powers over cooperative societies, for example refusal to register a cooperative society, cancellation of certificate of registration, to audit societys books of accounts, authority to inspect books of society, authority to settle disputes in cooperat Effect of Business and Management on SACCOs Effect of Business and Management on SACCOs The background gives a brief history of the savings and credit cooperative societies, highlights its importance to the society and touches on the problems that have influenced its performance of its roles and finally on the possible solutions or causes of actions. This preambles the statement of the problem, the purpose, significance, scope and limitations of the study together with the research questions. 1.2 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY One of the basic principles of Cooperative Savings and Credit Movement is the belief in co-operation and mutual self help for the uplifting of members standards of living. Kussco(2006). Members with a common bond join hands to form those quasi-banks institutions. With finances mobilized through such joint efforts the savings and credit society members build up the capital which they can use through local arrangements to finance their own social as well as economic development. The traditional form of cooperation involved working together on farms, hunting and gathering. All people have basic needs of food, shelter, security and belonging. People would invite neighbors to come and give a hand. Also people did not have money and resources, which enables individuals to employ people or machinery to do the work for them. In any community cooperation usually exists in the form of associations of people who come together as a group driven by their social and economic needs in order to cope with their problems and improve their conditions of living MOCD (2006) According to Odepo and Nyawinda (2004) , savings and credit cooperatives societies (commonly referred to as SACCOs), accept monthly payments for shares from which, members may borrow an amount equivalent to two or three times their own savings if they can get other members to guarantee them. They say that growth in SACCOs in the last twenty years has been spectacular. According to statistics from Kenya Union Of Savings and Credit Cooperative societies   (KUSCCO), the number of SACCOs rose from 630 in 1978 to 3,870 by the end of October 2002 while savings and share capital rose from Kshs. 375 million   in 1978 to Kshs. 80billion by 2003. Credit outreach similarly recorded significantly, having risen from 357 million in 1978 to kshs. 70 billion by 2003. Saccos active members numbered over 1.5 million by 2002 having risen from 378,500 members in 1978. Their rapid growth indicate that they have filled a need which had not been made by the financial institutions. Of the Kshs. 110 bill ion in the current share capital and deposits held by cooperatives, the statistics show that Kshs. 90 billion has been lent out to customers. However, the recent statistics from the ministry of cooperative development and marketing shows the position as below The internal management principles need to be enforced strongly to improve efficiency of collections, and even perhaps consider insuring the loans in case of demise of member loaned. The Sacco movement has the capacity to propel the economic lives of the citizens if indeed it is well managed. Its principles of democratic management, voluntary membership and common bond give it the base to take its members to new heights. The movement has been a boon for this country and many people would not be where they are now were it not for the harvests of the opportunities sowed in the garden of the movement. It mobilizes savings and finance and penetrates to areas not valued by other financial institutions, while serving special needs of members. The prospects for the industry are so huge. By identifying the fact that the easiest source of funding is the locally mobilized savings, the saccos should come up with innovative ideas to encourage the members of the common bond to save, as a first step. Other sources of funds like the cooperative bank, which all the saccos have a stake in, should be considered exhaustively. Besides they should think outside the box and get organi zations willing to empower members economically by allowing loans at a rate less than what saccos offer to its members. The saccos umbrella body- Kussco- has a fund to assist the member saccos when they are in need of the funds   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   ( www.kusco.com) Saccos face numerous challenges that hinder the exploitation of their full potential. Mudibo(2005) raised concerns on the calibre of leaders who run saccos noting that since these are voluntary organizations, members can elect anybody they like, who may not necessarily have the skills to run a sacco. He suggested that before a member is elected, he should have certain number of shares so that he has something to loose if he mismanages the sacco. Non remittance and delayed remittance of cooperative dues by employers has led to inconveniences and loss of income by the societies. New rules have however provided stiff penalties for errant employers. Members are also at risk due to HIV/AIDS and ways to attract new members are required. Ngumo (2005), in his article the cooperative movement in Kenya; the eagle that wont fly Nairobi, Kenya institute of management raises several unsettled issues affecting the saccos. First the government should decide on whether to control or facilitate the cooperatives. Cooperative roles should be re-emphasized. One member one vote should be questioned. Instead he suggests the policy of one share one vote. Still, ownership and control should be de-linked for good corporate governance. Then business strategies need further scrutiny before implementation. He concludes that it will be sad for Kenyans to compose a eulogy for the movement after all this time. He said; We cannot milk a cow, refuse to feed it, cry that it was wonderful cow and blame God for its demise. According to National Micro and Small Enterprise (MSE) Baseline Survey (1999/2000), Kenya has a relatively well developed banking and formal financial sector. This consists of the Central Bank, 43 commercial banks, 16 non-bank financial institutions, 2 mortgage finance companies, 4 building societies , 8 developed financial institutions about 3870 cooperative savings and credit societies, 38 insurance companies, the Nairobi stock exchange and venture capital companies. The survey further indicates that nearly 89.6% of MSEs had never received credit and other financial services. Table 1.2 Sources of credit   to MSEs in Kenya 2000 Source: National MSE Baseline survey 1999/2000 (CBS, K-rep and ICEG) The unserved credit needs portrayed by the statistics in the table 1.2 in the background section above signifies a wealth of opportunities untapped by all the financial institutions. The proof of the existence of market implies that a lot needs to be done to raise what it takes to serve a market. The most basic need is the finance to lend in a discipline way. Voluntary savings from members is therefore imperative. Saccos abilities to improve their members wealth is determined by a number of factors, among them is the funding levels due to members marginal propensity to save, contributions; remittance by the employers, legal and regulatory framework, internal management principles and practices (e.g customer service, marketing, dividend / interest payment etc) amongst other factors. These factors level of influence on saccos ability to perform captured the attention of the researcher. It was the intention of the researcher to examine them and possibly recommend on the best way to miti gate the underlying challenges and take advantage of the available opportunities by exploiting existing strengths. Voluntary deposits / savings as a source of commercial finance for micro credit institution have generated a lot of interest and debate in recent years. Locally mobilized voluntary savings is potentially the largest and the most immediately available source of finance for some micro credit institutions, most of all the saccos. Bearing this in mind, one is left to wonder what is hindering the saccos from prosperity, given the access to its resources and the wealth of its opportunities. The purpose of this research is to broaden the discussion of what, when, why and how a sacco should use its resources, get the right framework, apply effective policies for improvement of the wealth of its members. Getting these elements right is a crucial part of meeting the demand for the unmet credit needs. The researcher will also seek to bridge the gap that exist between Saccos that have exemplary performance in their services to members and excellent returns and some others which barely afford to offer loans, leave alone dividends. According to Armstrong, performance is often defined in output terms the achievement of quantified objectives. But performance is a matter not only of what people achieve but how they achieve it. High performance result from appropriate behaviour, especially discretionary behaviour, and the effective use of the required knowledge, skills and competencies. 1.3 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM Quite a number of Saccos e.g TENA sacco, have a long string of pending loan applications from members SACCO star ( 2006) . Some saccos pay out little or no dividends/ interests on members savings. Some others still have a low loan multiplier and / or limited concurrent loans compared to some well performing counterparts e.g Stima Sacco, Sacco star,(2006)- which has even started ATM services for FOSA customers and manages to advance more that three times the members deposits, can give up to four concurrent loans without closing any applications for the year and gives loans almost immediately it is applied for by the member , (mwaura (2004). Among the major problems hindering this is the unavailability of much needed cash to lend, when it is required. This therefore causes a mismatch in the availability of funds and the demand for loans. Other reasons could be poor investment decisions or lack of investment opportunities or delayed cash flow from employers/ members among others. Rutherford (1999) wrote that funding these large sums of money is the main management problem. The only reliable and sustainable way is to build them from savings. Saving- making a choice not to consume- is thus the fundamental and unavoidable first step in money management, without which financial services cannot operate. The poor themselves recognize the need to build savings into lump sums and contrary to the popular belief, the poor want to save and try to save, and all poor people except those who are entirely outside the cash economy can save something, no matter how small, When poor people do not save, it is for luck of opportunity rather for lack of understanding or of will. Most of the saccos have succeeded in mobilization of savings from members. Inspite of this, still they have a huge backlog in terms of loans advanced to members (Sacco star, 2005). Furthermore, most of the saccos pay little dividends/interests on deposits or none at all, in-spite of trading with the deposits/savings. It was therefore the intention of the researcher to seek to establish the determinants of saccos capabilities to improve its members well being. 1.4 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY Main Objective The main purpose of this study was to investigate and refine our understanding of the major factors that determine the performance of saccos to enable them maximize their members wealth. Specific objective Specifically, the study sought: To find out the extend to which the nature of business/ check off system affects performance of SACCOs To establish the relationship between management practices and performance of SACCOs To examine the level of education and training of general members, committee members staff and their effects on performance of SACCOs To determine if long term investment affects performance of SACCOs 1.5 RESEARCH QUESTIONS To what extent does the nature of business/ check off system affect performance of SACCOs? Do management practices affect performance of SACCOs? Is education and training of general members, committee members staff a factor that affects the performance of SACCOs? Does long term investment affect the performance of SACCOs? 1.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY This study is aimed at developing an understanding on major factors determining the accessibility to funds to process and dispense all loan requisitions in time by saccos in Kenya. It is seeking to examine and underscore the salient principles that have a bearing in the success in similar or related areas of focus, and hence suggest ways and means of overcoming failure. The study is aimed at benefiting, among others, the management teams. These are the people entrusted by the members to take care of their interests in saccos. They will study to understand and improve on policy setting and implementation for overall sustainability of the sector. The entire sacco membership will also get enlightened. The members of the common bond will appreciate their role in sustaining their welfare through sacco as a vehicle. They will be more willing to take a center role instead of quiting when they feel their interests are not being taken care of by the people they entrusted them with. It will also benefit the sacco staff/secretariate; these are the people who get their daily bread from the sacco. They will understand their role in the growth of the organization, hence acting to secure their source of livelihood. It will also be of good use to the government department in charge of cooperatives. The report will bring to light issues requiring framework and only them can attend to for the overall sustainability of the sacco industry. Finally other researchers in this area will find this useful. They will get recommendations for further research from this study. The beneficiaries will have access to the information on the findings from the compiled report. The final report will be available in selected major libraries, organized groups, especially the respondents will get a copy of the report on the findings. 1.7 SCOPE OF THE STUDY This studys scope was the saccos based in Eldoret. The researcher selected a suitable sample from the population by purposive convenience sampling. According to the statistics from MOCD/M, there are about 10 such saccos within Eldoret town. About 40 % of the population (4 saccos) were covered by the study. The study targeted the members of the central management committee (CMC) in the selected SACCOs. CHAPTER TWO 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Introduction to literature review This section contains literature that has been reviewed and continues to be reviewed relating to the problem. Literature review involves locating, reading and evaluating reports of previous studies, observations and opinions relating to the planned study. It therefore enables the researcher to know what has been done in the particular field of study, makes one aware of what has been made and what challenges remain, and gives suggestions on the variables and procedures that could be used. Literature review logically leads to objectives on the study. 2.2 Past studies in the area 2.2.1 Background information According to Mwaura (2005) sessional paper No. 4 of 1987 on renewed growth through the cooperative movement highlighted the significance of the movement in national development. By this time there were 3500 registered cooperatives with more than 2million members and an annual turnover greater than 6billion. The paper noted that one in every two Kenyans derived its livelihood from the cooperative either directly or indirectly. The cooperative movement in Kenya is reputed to be the most advanced in the African continent. The Kenya Nordic agreement of 1967led to the establishment of the Cooperative college of Kenya at Langata, which is the main training ground for both ministry staff and the movement employees. According to MOCD (2002) the first Savings and credit Cooperatives in Kenya were started in the sixties. The Government annual economic survey shows that as at December 2002 there were more than 2,400 active SACCOS with membership in excess of 1.5 million people. Share capital stood at Kshs. 65 billion while outstanding loans were Kshs. 59 billion.. The structure of the cooperative movement in Kenya comprises of four tiers. These include the primary societies, secondary cooperatives, tertiary cooperatives and nationwide cooperatives. The Kenya Federal of Cooperatives (KNFC) is the only apex society in the movement. It was formed with an objective of promoting, developing, guiding, assisting and upholding ideas of the cooperative principles. KNFC is the link between cooperatives in Kenya and the international cooperative alliance. Of special mention here is the African Confederation of Cooperative Savings and Credit Associations (ACCOSCA), which is registered under the Societies Act, Chapter 108 of the laws of Kenya. Its area of operation is Africa and the adjacent islands. Its head-quarters is in Nairobi. It has twenty five affiliated organizations. It is affiliated to the International Cooperative Alliance through its members in the world council of Credit Unions (WOCCU). According to the cooperative Societies Act (Cap 490), persons desirous of forming a cooperative society must fill the prescribed form from the commissioner for cooperatives. It requires that at least ten members will sign the form, though for savings and credit the commissioner has been asked for more people. The form requires that the society makes its by-laws. For ease of convenience the commissioner has prepared model by-laws for the cooperative societies. The societies are nevertheless free to change these or come up with their own by-laws. The by-laws must detail the following; the name of the society, objects of the society, purposes to which its funds may be applied, disposal of surplus funds, qualifications for membership and terms and conditions of admission of members. For savings and credit cooperatives, the following are also includes, the rate of interest, the maximum amount loan-able, extension, renewal and recovery of loans and the consequences of default in the repayment of any sums due. On receipt of the application form the office of the commissioner will register the cooperative society on the advice of the cooperative officer in charge of the area of operation. Chapter 490 provides that no companies registered under the companys Act or any un-incorporated body of persons shall become a member of a registered society except with the written permission of the commissioner. It also provides that no person can join more than one cooperative society with unlimited liability. A member may nevertheless be allowed to join two or more cooperatives with limited liability if the two are in different areas of operation. A cooperative society just like a company, may be registered with or without limited liability. The commissioner has power to refuse to register a cooperative society. Nevertheless, the refusal must be given to the applicants in writing. Applicants can appeal to the minister for cooperative developments and finally to the high court. The commissioner may register the cooperative either provisionally or fully. A provision registration is given where some requirements for registration have not been met. The applicants are given a period o f one year to satisfy all conditions. A provisionally registered cooperative society may act as a fully registered in all ways. Upon registration such a cooperative society is deemed to have been registered on the date of the provisional registration. Upon registration a society becomes a body of corporate. According to Ouma(1980), the term cooperative in its widest sense simply means working together. In this context cooperation is as old as mankind and exists wherever the human family is found. Indeed such cooperation exists among animals, insects, bees and ants. Thus cooperation generally means working together for a common purpose. Thus group effort through traditional form of cooperation may be traced in all communities of the world. However its narrow sense as a movement, it means an association of people whose purpose for group work yields good results not only for the members but to the community in general and even to the humanity at large. Cooperative is a business organization by profit, but rather the result of mutual association whose objective is equitable economic betterment of man and the society in which he lives. According to the MOCD, cooperatives are regulated by a set of principals. These principles were formulated by a group of people who lived in a village in England known as Rochdale, and they are therefore referred to as Rochdale pioneers. They formed the first successful cooperative society   in 1884. This society which was a consumer cooperative society was formed in 1844 when Britain was undergoing industrial revolution. As a result of the revolution, a lot of people lost their jobs in the factories as machines were introduced to replace them. In addition to this there was general lack of credit and supply of essential commodities like salt, sugar, flour and cooking fat. Businessmen also took advantage of this situation and started offering impure products at high prices. It is against this background that Rochdale Pioneers decided to draw up some sort of principles which would guide their operation as cooperative society.   These principles were intended for the regulation of cooperative society as indicated by the great stress on the sale of pure products and the sale of goods for cash only. It was therefore found necessary to formulate the principles for adoption by other types of cooperatives. The International Cooperative Alliance (ICA) Commission of 1966 adopted the following principles which are genuine for the running of a genuine cooperative society:- Open and voluntary membership, democratic administration (one man, one vote), limited interest on share capital, payments of dividends and bonuses to members, promotion of education and cooperation with other cooperatives at local national and international levels. According to Ouma (1980), the traditional cooperatives have been in existence in Kenya, as it has been elsewhere, from time immemorial. Examples of such cooperative practices are to be found in Kenya. The group association is normally based on lineage according to the natural geographic environment in which the members of the group are born. This is usually based on clan or people who live within the same village. It can be stated with fair amount of certainty that the   traditional forms of cooperation do generally speaking, form the basis for the establishment of modern cooperative organizations. There is for instance in Luo, Saga whereby a group of people do ploughing, weeding or harvest for each member of the group in turn. In Kwath, members of the group look after their cattle together for three or more days consecutively, in turn. In Kikuyu there is what is called ngwatio (Mwethya in Kamba) whereby members of the group get together to build houses for themselves, each member of the group breinging what is required for the construction e.g. grass and poles. When the first house is completed then the members start on the next one. In Kisii, there is what is called obituary wherby men go on a job hunting exercise, and when they kill an animal, they will either divide it or take it home (village) where it mis cooked and eaten communally by all the villagers. Among the Kalenjin there is the practice of Kokwet wherby a group of people   would go out to harvest or weed the garden of their members in turn. The Kalenjin also have Loget whereby the men   go in a joint   effort to kill animals for food. According to Ouma(1980), practically all the ethnic groups in this country, whether small or big, has since time immemorial practiced mutual association in order to satisfy their needs socially, economically or otherwise. It is also necessary to point out that in the traditional forms of cooperatives, in contrast to the modern cooperatives, members had a great sense of commitment and belonging.. They had mutual trust and   were voluntarily involved in their activities and affairs.. It is of course not possible and it may not be expected that with the development of cosmopolitan populations consisting of different ethnic groups and tribes that members can still hold   together without some form of regulations. Hence the necessity to resort to legal reinforcement and education in order to develop efficient cooperative organizations. Although these associations of group effort could be deemed self help which is infect a for of cooperative , it is nevertheless true to say that the modern cooperative movement, born in Kenya during the beginning of twentieth century owed much of the cooperative idea to these earlier practices. It is also true that the modern cooperative associations in this country took a different approach and   mainly because of expediency. Its founders the British settlers- merely wanted to use it as a cheap means of business for easy profit making. They never spontaneously involved the indigenous people who already were familiar with cooperative effort. The early settlers were beset by very many problems as regards their agricultural activities. For instance prices for Agricultural products were very low, transport of the agricultural inputs and outputs to the markets by each individual settler were classical nightmares. Therefore this new system of farming with its large scale production caused the needs for associations by the few European farmers who undoubtedly had conceived the cooperative idea from the British cooperative movement back home. It will of course be recalled that the formal and successful cooperative organisations started in Britain in 1844. In 1908, they resolved to join together at a place called Lumbwa and formed Lumbwa cooperative Society Ltd. Although not registered as such under any cooperative Societies Act, it is deemed to be one of the modern cooperatives in Kenya. The main objective was to purchase merchandise; i.e. fertilizers, chemical seeds, and other agricultural inputs through collective effort, and to market their produce collectively thus taking advantage of the economy of scale. It would appear quite clear at this point that cooperatives in Kenya did not start as a poor mans defensive weapon against the exploitation by the middlemen, as it had started in Europe and elsewhere. It was on the contrary an easier means to enable the white settlers to receive high returns from their agricultural produce. Thus it was rather an economic necessity for the well to do and not the ordinary man with little or no means at all. It will be remembered that during this time, there was no cooperative societies ordinance to regulate and to assist the management of these cooperative efforts in Kenya. It is also not clear whether or   not Lumbwa Cooperative society ltd was registered even under the companies Act, otherwise calling it a co-operative society was misleading. However one thing remains certain, and that is that the settlers wanted to maximize their profits by trading under the pretext of a co-operative organisation, thereby enjoying its privileges. According to Ouma (1980) many self help groups, most of which were very small and un-economic, were started all over the country. But these were not economically viable and consequently had to be amalgamated into larger economic units. These were for instance Kenya farmers association (co-operatives), Kenya planters co-operative union, Kenya cooperative creameries and Horticultural cooperative union. It is a fact that these institutions formed the backbone and the base for formal cooperative movement in this country. These initial cooperative ventures in Kenya were unfortunately not quite in the spirit of the Rochdale Pioneer Cooperative Society. They never for example, observed the principle of membership, for no African could participate in it until later. The need to form formal cooperative organisations arose when some African peasant farmers realized that they were being exploited, especially by the Asian traders who were paying very low prices for their agricultural produce. As early as in the 1930s there were attempts to form cooperatives by the indigenous people of Kenya, in spite of lack of proper guidance. Of these early attempts two examples can be mentioned here, The Taita vegetable company and the Kisii coffee Growers cooperative. The farmers had 239 members and bought 3 lorries at the cost of $1170 out of the profits made from the operations. The group was producing, grading, transporting and selling on the mombasa market over 900,000Lbs of vegetables a year and the growers received over $4,500 out of a gross selling price of $ 6300. This was indeed too substantial an enterprise to be left without a legal basis. It was later registered as cooperative society. The Kisii coffee growers Association which was able to raise from the sale of its coffee a sum of $2470 of which   $1240 was paid out to the 251 members who had cultivated only 159 acres, but had already accumulated a surplus of $1065. In 1994, the British Colonial Office in London appointed Mr. W.K.H Campbell to come to investigate the possibilities of African participation in the cooperative organisations. He carried out his investigations by touring and visiting many towns and districts in the republic of Kenya and talking to the people. After all his investigations Mr. Campbell submitted his recommendations that subject to availability of capable staff attempts to organise cooperatives were worth while. It was also during this time that the first African Mr. Eliud Mathu was nominated to the legislative assembly, as the Kenya parliament was called then. He demanded in parliament and such people as Ex chief Koinange from outside, that the Government should come out openly to encourage African participation in the cooperative movement. It was as a result of Campbells recommendation that the cooperative societies (Registration) Amendment, Ordinance of 1932 was repealed and the cooperative societies Ordinance of 1945 was enacted under Cap. 287. It was as a result of this new ordinance that the department of cooperatives was created, although it was placed under different ministries at various times. Consequent to the establishment of the department, a registrar ( now called commissioner for cooperative Development) was appointed and together with his staff was responsible for registration and promotion of cooperative societies in the country. The 1945 cooperative societies ordinance further gave the registrar certain powers over cooperative societies, for example refusal to register a cooperative society, cancellation of certificate of registration, to audit societys books of accounts, authority to inspect books of society, authority to settle disputes in cooperat